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The IPM CRSP Funded by USAID |
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The IPM CRSP Funded by USAID |
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IPM CRSP
1995-1996 (29 September 1995 - 28 September 1996) The IPM CRSP is funded by the United States Agency for International Development under Grant No. LAG-4196-G-00-3053-00, and the participating institutions. Report Coordinated and Edited by the Management Entity of the IPM CRSP.
Report Editors and Coordinators:
Brhane Gebrekidan, Program Director, IPM CRSP
Jean-Pierre Amirault, Assistant Coordinator, ICN/Africa IPM Link
Special acknowledgements to William Lowe for proofreading the papers and to Margaret Zelinski for her overall assistance in the preparation of this report.
Contact Address for the Management Entity
IPM CRSP
Office of International Research and Development
Outreach Division, Office of the University Provost
1060 Litton Reaves Hall
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA 24061-0334
Telephone (540) 231-3513
FAX (540) 231-3519
E-mail: brhane@vt.edu
IPM CRSP US Institutions
| Lincoln University | Rodale Inst. Res. Ctr |
| Montana State University | Univ of CA/Berkeley |
| Ohio State University | University of Georgia |
| Penn State University | USDA Veg Lab |
| Purdue University | Virginia Tech |
Host Country Institutions
| Prime Sites | Satellite Sites | ||
| Guatemala | Agri-lab, ALTERTEC, CARE, ICTA | Ecuador | INIAP |
| Jamaica | CARDI, Ministry of Agriculture | Honduras | EAP |
| Mali | IER | Thailand | Dept. of Agriculture |
| Philippines | NCPC/UPLB, PhilRice | Uganda | Makerere University |
International Centers
AVRDC - Taiwan
IRRI - Philippines
CIAT - Colombia
CIP - Peru
Private Sector
The Kroger Company
Caito Foods
PICO
NGOs/PVOs
CLADES
Foreword This third annual report of the Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (IPM CRSP) covers the funding period September 29, 1995 to September 28, 1996. The report is organized in sections by the four geographic regions (Latin America, Caribbean, Africa, and Asia) where the IPM CRSP has on-going research activities. Each section of this annual report begins with a regional overview by the site chair and the host country coordinator. The individual reports have been prepared by the investigators and/or their host country collaborators. A separate section on training is presented at the end of the report.
I would like to express my appreciation to all site chairs for organizing and coordinating the reports in their respective regions and to all investigators for submitting their reports on time. I acknowledge the significant contribution of Jean-Pierre Amirault in editing and processing the annual report for publication. William Lowe's contribution in proofreading and language editing is also appreciated. Margaret Zelinski provided overall assistance in the coordination and preparation of this report.
Brhane Gebrekidan
Program Director, IPM CRSP
A Taxonomic Survey of the Snow Pea Leafminer Species Agromyzidae in the Guatemalan Highlands. Roger Williams.
The findings from the Monjas Valley, Jalapa, Guatemala, show that in addition to Liriomyza huidobrensis, at least one additional species of Agromyzid leafminer is present on snow pea in Guatemala. This second species is probably L. sativae but requires confirmation through the Systematics Entomology Laboratory in Beltsville, MD. L. sativae and L. sabaziae can be confused due to the variability in body coloration and the fact that sinonimies in the literature have merged holotypes that are quite different amongst themselves. Both species appear to be present in Guatemala. The Monjas valley is in a lower and hotter ecological life zone than the cool highland cropping zone, and results suggest that snow peas grown in warm, lowland conditions are host to different species of leafminers than highland snow peas. L. huidobrensis continues to be the sole species found in snow peas and other crops in the central highlands. So far, we have identified four other Liriomyza species: L. trifolii, L. sabaziae, L. sativae, and L. commelinae on a variety of hosts. L. huidobrensis is a highly polyphagous species and occurs on a variety of crops in Guatemala but is quite rare on surrounding weeds and native vegetation. This suggests that huidobrensis has been introduced to the highlands on crops and that its population dynamics are defined primarily by constraints within the crop ecosystem and not to a large extent on wild alternate hosts.
Population Fluctuation of Leafminer, Liriomyza huidobrensis B., and its Damage on Snow Peas. Roger Williams.
The objective of this study was to determine the geographical distribution, population fluctuation and the relationship between population and damage caused by the leaf-miner, Liriomyza huidobrensis, in snow peas in Guatemala. 78 localities in 6 snow pea-producing departments (states) were sampled at 2 week intervals. Final results show that compared to the other snow pea producing regions, leafminer populations are larger in Chimaltenango and Sacatepequez (the 2 departments with the largest snow pea production). The largest population and greatest damage were found during the dry season, mostly in Chimaltenango and Sacatepéquez. No relationship between leafminer population and damage was determined, probably because oviposition occurs mostly in leaves.
Population Fluctuation of Leafminers in Snow Peas Located in the Guatemalan Central Highlands. Steve Weller.
The population fluctuation of adult leafminers was determined between April, 1995 and March, 1996, at seven sites in the Guatemalan central highlands. These sites were Santa Lucía Milpas Altas and Santiago Sacatepéquez in the Department of Sacatepéquez and El Tejar, Chimaltenango, Zaragoza, Patzicía and El Sitio in the Department of Chimaltenango. The sampling was done by weekly visual observations at each site. Rainfall data was also recorded, and it was found that leafminer populations vary throughout the year and that the presence or absence of rainfall (wet and dry seasons) influences population dynamics. The lowest leafminer pressure was found between August and October (a period of heavy rainfall), and the greatest population pressure was found during the month of March (height of the dry season). Of the sites studied, El Sitio and Patzicía had the highest leafminer populations, especially during the dry season. Santa Lucía Milpas Altas and Santiago Sacatepéquez had the lowest leafminer pressure during the same dry season. Generally speaking, leafminer population densities are at their lowest during the rainy season.
Leaf Miner Liriomyza huidobrensis Population at Five Sampling Times in Three Snow Pea Plant Heights. Luis Fernando Solís.
This study was done to determine the time of day and plant height from the ground preferred by leaf miners. The research was done during two seasons of the year and at 3 sites, Sacatepéquez, Chimaltenango and Patzicía. A factorial statistical design was used. The response variables were: number of adults by plant by height on plant at five points in time, the number of galleries and adults per vegetative stratum during 10 weeks of records. We established that the leaf miner adult populations are higher in the upper stratum of the pea plant. The largest quantity of larvae in the leaves were found in the middle and inferior parts of the plant. Leaf miner adults presence is higher in the foliage at 12:00 noon. Patzicía had the largest leaf miner population.
Color Evaluation in Trapping of Thrips, Leafminers and White-Flies in Snow Peas. Steve Weller
The effect of traps of different colors on the capture of thrips and leafminers was evaluated in snow peas. "Stamped" traps, simulating the white color of snow pea flowers, were used as an attractant for thrips, while other traps similar to snow pea leaves and pods were tested for leafminers. The objective was to improve the performance of traditional yellow traps. Nine treatments using different color combinations were evaluated (white circles and green background, green circles and white background, yellow circles with brown background). Five other treatments used traps with solid colors (yellow, purple, white, green and brown). A colorless, transparent trap was used as the control. The experiment used a complete randomized block design with 5 replicates. It was hoped that by simulating snow pea flowers and leaves an improved trap catch would be obtained; however, this was not achieved. The best color for attracting leafminer flies was purple, while yellow attracted more whiteflies and thrips.
Effect of Different Colors of Polyethylene Mulch on Snow Pea Pests and Yields. Roger Williams.
The effect of 6 colors of polyethylene mulch (green, silver, white, black, red, yellow) compared with no mulch (uncovered soil control) was examined in relation to its effect on snow pea yields, as well as pest populations of leafminers, thrips, diseases, and weeds. The trial was conducted at ICTA's Agricultural Field Station located at La Alameda, Chimaltenango. A complete randomized block design with 4 replicates was used during two different growing seasons (once during the dry and once during the rainy season). Those variables which exhibited significant differences were analyzed using Tukey's comparison of means. Thrip populations were not affected by any of the mulch colors during either the rainy and the dry seasons. However, an increase in thrip populations was observed during the dry season. A repellent effect of silver and red mulches against leafminers was noted during the vegetative growth cycle during both seasons but was absent during the harvest stage (which is when it is most needed). Weeds were not found in any of the six plastic mulch treatments, which ensures no competition between snow peas and weed species. Plants grown under mulch were taller than those of the control (exposed soil), especially during the dry season. The treatment which provided the best net return was the silver polyethylene mulch.
Pilot Program For The Integrated Management of Snow Peas (Pisum sativum) in Guatemala. Guillermo E. Sánchez, Glenn Sullivan, and Stephen Weller.
With the objective of maintaining the competitiveness of Guatemalan snow pea exports in the international markets, a phytosanitary management program is being evaluated. The effectiveness of the integrated crop management (ICM) program will be evaluated among three export companies with distinct field and packing practices. The plots have been established at three locations in Guatemala's central highlands. The results from the ICM-managed plots will also be compared with results obtained by neighboring growers, utilizing traditional production practices. This evaluation is being carried out as the preliminary stage in the implementation of a national snow pea production program directed to reduce pest infestations and pesticide concentration in the export product, thus providing a safer food supply to importing countries.
Snow Pea Farming and Postharvest Practices in Guatemala: Case Studies. Guillermo E. Sánchez and Stephen C. Weller.
The purpose of this study was to conduct case studies of four snow pea growers with different farming and post-harvest practices. This research identified differences in production, phytosanitary, and postharvest practices between successful and deficient snow pea production systems. Important differences among the growers included irrigation practices, fertilization, and phytosanitary programs. It was determined that chemical control is the main approach for the management of the main insect pests and diseases attacking snow peas. The results from these case studies are to be incorporated into the design of a snow pea production model that will allow for an improved and internationally competitive Guatemalan snow pea production.
Effects of Strip Cropping on Insect Pests and Diseases in Guatemalan Snow Pea Fields. Guillermo E. Sánchez and Michael Wade.
A field experiment designed to compare the effects on yield and pest pressure of monocultured snow peas in comparison to stripped-cropped snow peas was established. The experimental design was a completely randomized blocks, with four treatments and five replications. Treatments included, (T1) monocultured snow peas (control); potato strips alternated with snow pea strips (T2); wheat strips alternated with snow peas (T3) and, alternating strips of wheat, snow peas and potato (T4). Insect and disease counts were conducted every two weeks. No pesticides were applied throughout the duration of the study. The main insect pests were thrips, leaf- miners, aphids, and lepidpoteran larvae, while the most prevalent disease was Ascochyta leaf blight. No statistically significant differences were detected among yields or pest pressure of the different treatments. Even though no foliar pesticides were applied, it was possible to obtain a harvest of 72-75% of export-quality pods. These results show to farmers that obtaining a satisfactory level of export-quality snow peas can be achieved even under a no-pesticide regime.
Insecticide Evaluation for Leafminer Control in Snow Peas. Luis Calderón.
Ten different insecticides were evaluated as well as a control (water) for control of leafminers. A complete randomized block design was used with three replicates. Pods treated with Cartap, Oxamyl, Thiocyclam, and Cyromazine were subjected to a residue analysis ten days after their application, and residues were detectable up to eight days after spraying. Detergents, paraffinated oils, malathion, and neem extract had no effect on either leafminer adults or larvae. Results indicate that the most effective insecticides for adult leafminers were Cartap, Oxamyl, and Thiocyclam, and the most effective insecticides against leafminer larvae were Cyromazine, Cartap, and Thiocyclam.
Evaluation of Five Methods to Control White Grubs, Phyllophaga spp., in Snow Pea, Pisum sativum. César López and Milton Sandoval.
The White Grub, Phyllophaga spp., is one of the most important pests in Guatemala. A bio-assay was done at the Agricultural Services General Direction, DIGESA, la Alameda, Chimaltenango, evaluating the parasitism effect produced by the nematode Steinennerma spp. and the pathogenicity of the fungus Metarrizium spp. Also, the effect of the natural pesticides wild sunflower, Tagetes spp., and macerated White Grubs, compared with chemical control was evaluated. The effect of the alternatives evaluated to control white grubs was statistically similar. The yield was similar in every treatment, except for the chemical control because of toxicity caused by the pesticide. The application of wild sunflower and macerated white grubs had the lowest cost, Metarrizium and Steinennerma had higher costs than the former, and the most expensive practice was the use of chemical pesticides.
The Effect of Organic Amendments on Soil Pests and Crop Nutrition of Broccoli and Snow Pea. Michael K. Wade and Ronald Carroll.
Even high rates (6 t DM/ha) of organic fertilizers have had no negative effect on soil- related pests in broccoli by six weeks of age. No pesticides of any kind have been used or needed. There are considerable differences, however, among the sources tested as to their ability to fertilize the crop. Visual crop growth response can be ranked as follows: high rate chemical fertilizer (175-180-0)=low rate chemical fertilizer (120-60-0) combined with low rate chicken litter (0.8 t DM/ha) > high rate crude or semi-composted chicken litter = high rate green manure (mucuna) = low rate chemical fertilizer alone or with low rate cow manure, green manure or homeyard compost > high rate cow manure > high rate homeyard compost.
Effects of Strip Cropping on Insect Pests, Diseases. and Yield of Broccoli in the Central Highland of Guatemala. Guillermo E. S.nchez and Michael Wade.
A field experiment was designed and established to compare the effects on yield and pest pressure of monocultured broccoli in comparison to stripped-cropped broccoli. The experimental design was a completely randomized blocks, with four treatments and five replications. Treatments included, (T1) monocultured broccoli (control); corn strips alternated with broccoli strips (T2); black bean strips alternated with broccoli (T3); and strips of mixed corn and blackbeans alternated with strips of broccoli (T4). A total of five insect counts were taken during the experiment. No pesticides were applied throughout the duration of the study. The main insect pests were lepidopteran larvae, mainly Plutella xylastella, Trichoplusia ni and Leptophobia aripa. The only recorded disease was downy mildew (Pernospora parasitica). No statistically significant differences were detected among yields or pest pressure of the different treatments. Even though no foliar pesticides were applied, it was possible to obtain yields ranging from 16 to 21 MT/Ha. These results show farmers that : 1)obtaining a satisfactory level of export-quality broccoli can be achieved even under a no-pesticide regime and 2) strip-cropped broccoli and blackbeans improves yields by 30% in comparison to monocultured broccoli.
Validation of IPM practices to Control Whiteflies in Tomatoes. Julio Rufino Salazar.
Tomato growers were organized to validate Integrated Whitefly Management practices in two communities in El Progreso, Guatemala during two phases from August 1995 to May 1996. In the first phase, the growers were trained in biology and management of the problem. They selected the control practices which they considered to be most appropriate for their conditions. Farm visits, conferences, demonstrations, interviews, and other activities were conducted. Slides, transparencies, a blackboard, brochures, and other materials were used for demonstration. Twenty-three growers in Llano de Morales and ten in Magdalena were trained. From fourteen technologies analyzed, the growers selected five: covered seedbeds, seedlings, sorghum barriers, yellow sticky traps, and plastic mulches. These practices were validated in the second phase on co-workers' farms. Data on whitefly populations, virus incidence, yield, and the farmers' opinions were registered. The plastic mulches helped to reduce viruses, weeds, fertilizer, and water requirements. Better fruit quality and higher profitability were attained. Based on these results, it is recommended to promote the use of these IPM practices and the validation technology to other tomato producer zones.
Evaluation of the Populations of Beneficial and Harmful Arthropods in Mulched Plots. Jon Kanagy and Víctor Salguero.
The use of mulch affects a multitude of factors in the agroecosystem. One of the most important roles of mulch is as a habitat for beneficial organisms, which facilitates biological control of pests. In November 1995, paired plots, with and without mulch, were established at two locations (each on farmers' fields). Population counts of both beneficial and harmful organisms were made for one year. Crop yields were also measured during the year in order to establish population fluctuations. The data showed that both beneficial arthropod populations and yields were increased by the use of mulch.
Evaluation of Benzimidazole and Dicarboximide Resistance of Botrytis cinerea in Guatemalan Raspberry and Blackberry Fields. Guillermo E. Sanchez.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether resistance against commonly used dicarboximide and benzimidazoles fungicides has developed in Botrytis cinerea infecting brambles in Guatemala. Susceptible B. cinerea isolates to be used as controls were obtained from wild blackberries growing in the central highland mountains. None of these isolates grew at all when challenged in vitro with either of the two chemicals of interest. Twenty-five isolates from three different bramble plantations were screened for resistance using mycelial growth assay. For this, isolates were cultured in malt extract agar medium (MEA) and challenged with 2.5 and 5.0 ug active ingredient of benomyl/ml of MEA and 10 ug active ingredient of iprodione/ml of MEA. Results show that fungal isolates capable of growing under the presence of either benzimidazole and dicarboximide were recovered. Zero growth in fungicide-amended media was obtained in 100% of the susceptible checks collected from wild bramble plants. These results show that benzimidazole and iprodione-resistant strains are indeed present in Guatemalan bramble plantations and that overuse of these fungicides may lead to increased difficulties in the effective management of Botrytis fruit rot in Guatemala.
Pest Control and Soil Management in the Guatemalan Highlands: Understanding Traditional Mayan Agricultural Practices. Helda Morales and Roger Williams.
Traditional farmers in Patzun, Chimaltenango, often report that the use of organic fertilizer reduces insect pest populations in their milpas, and they agree that pest populations have increased since the introduction of synthetic fertilizers. A controlled experiment was established to determine the mechanisms involved in the process. Above- and below-ground insect pests, natural enemies, leaf nutrient contents, and corn yields, were evaluated. During the first year of the experiment, aphid populations were higher in corn fertilized with synthetic fertilizer than in plants fertilized with composted cow manure. No significant difference was detected for the other variables measured. Based on the data collected, it seems that traditional organic fertilizer can reduce aphid populations in corn; however, the mechanisms for this reduction are not yet understood. The data collected in the experimental plots may vary in the second crop cycle, since the effect of organic fertilization on plants can be slow and may not appear until one year after application. The second year of field experiments and supplementary greenhouse experiments will give us a better understanding of the system.
Economic and Socioeconomic Impact Assessment of Non-Traditional Crop Production Strategies on Small Farm Households in Guatemala. Glenn H. Sullivan and Linda Asturias de Barrios.
A comprehensive literature review on socioeconomic impacts of Non-traditional agricultural export (NTE) crops on small farmers in Guatemala was finished, presented at the II IPM-CRSP/Guatemala seminar and reviewed for their publication in the IPM series. Two surveys on the socioeconomic impact of the snow peas crisis due to leafminer infestation and detention at USA ports were conducted among leader farmers and intermediaries. Results were also presented at the aforementioned seminar and final reports are in process. A production and commercialization regional assessment was conducted in Chimaltenango and Sacatepéquez . Results were integrated into the report on the socioeconomic impact of the snow peas crisis. The first round of case studies on crop management and the socioeconomic situation of snow peas farmers was completed. This included three cooperative members. The assessment of institutional policies is in process. Due to the restructuring of Sanidad Vegetal, a decision was taken to postpone some of the planned activities for year three.
Assessment of Pesticide Residues in Soils and in Callaloo, Peppers, and Sweet Potatoes. Clive A. Edwards and Margaret Frericks Huelsman.
The pesticides most commonly used on callaloo (Amaranthus sp.), hot peppers and sweet potatoes were; diazinon, profenofos, methomyl, malathion, monocrotophos, ethoprop, carbaryl, carbofuran, and deltamethrin. Samples of callaloo, hot peppers, and sweet potatoes were taken from local markets, frozen, and returned to the U.S. for residue analysis. The first sampling was in September 1995 and the second in May 1996. Some of these samples are still being analyzed. The most common pesticide residue was diazinon, found on 60% of the callaloo samples. Populations of arthropod pests and predators were sampled in six callaloo and six sweet potato fields. Half the fields were sampled in September 1995 and the other half in November 1995. The sampling was by the use of pitfall traps and sticky traps. Levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, and calcium were measured in soil samples from the same fields. There were significant correlations, some positive and some negative, between populations of pests and their predators and soil nutrient levels, particularly potassium and nitrogen.
Viruses and Other Diseases of Pepper in Jamaica. Sharon McDonald, F. W. Ravlin, H. Warren, Janice Reid, Raymond Martin, D. Hutton.
These activities represent the initial efforts at a comprehensive treatment of pepper viruses that have crippled pepper production and export from many areas of the country. More effort will be put into this objective in the coming years.
Analysis of the Impact of Cropping Systems Upon Pest Incidence, Damage Levels, and Management. Janice Reid, Janet Lawrence, Dionne Clarke-Harris, Marlene Pereira, Heather Reid, Peter Myers, Oral James, Donald Simpson, Don Mc Glashan, Phillip Chung, Dave Hutton, Althea Perkins, Dwight Robinson.
As a result of this research, we have identified all of the major pests of callaloo, pepper, and sweet potato. This was accomplished by two seasons of in-field sampling. The results of this research provide the essential information to prioritize future research and gain baseline information on the relative rates of damage due to each pest. In addition to the pest identification, this work seeks to identify cropping practices that affect crop loss and pest incidence. In this report, we discuss initial attempts at evaluating pesticide use by Jamaican farmers. During this season our objective was also to evaluate alternatives to insecticides that present environmental and human health problems. In the long term, we view this research as an intermediate phase to minimizing or eliminating synthetic pesticides. Associated with this work was an evaluation of the effect that some commonly-used
Weed Management in Callaloo and Pepper Cropping Systems. Howard Harrison and Janice Reid.
Due to the abundance of weeds observed to be associated with callaloo cropping systems during Year II and the heavy labour weed control methods being conducted by farmers, a study was conducted to determine the cost effectiveness and appropriateness of pre- and post-emergent herbicides and manual weed control methods.
The following observations were made during the study:
Integrated Pest Management Components For Vegetable Crops. R. L. Fery, J. R. Bohac, J. A. Thies.
Laboratory, greenhouse, and field studies were conducted to address pest and weed problems associated with the production of peppers and sweetpotatoes. A study was initiated to evaluate Capsicum chinense pepper cultivars currently grown in Jamaica for resistance to root-knot nematodes. A series of F1 hybrids of root-knot resistant C. chinense x root-knot nematode susceptible C. chinense lines was developed. The results of both greenhouse and field studies demonstrated that two USDA candidate bell pepper cultivars have high levels of resistance to root-knot nematodes, and both lines exhibited the types of horticultural traits needed for a commercial cultivar. These results also suggested that host plant resistance is a suitable substitute for nematicide in controlling root-knot nematodes in pepper plantings. The root-knot nematode resistant pepper cultivar Carolina Cayenne was demonstrated to be a potentially valuable cultigen for use in crop rotation schemes for the management of southern root-knot nematodes in susceptible vegetable crops. Several advanced dry-flesh sweetpotato clones were confirmed to have multiple resistances to diseases and pests and to have both high yield potential and excellent culinary quality. These results indicate that the development of pepper and sweetpotato cultivars with excellent horticultural characteristics and multiple resistances to pests and diseases should be readily obtainable objectives.
The Influence of Nutrient Management and Varietal Selection of Peppers and Callaloo (Amaranthus sp.) on Pest Incidence and Yield. F. Eivazi, D. Marsh, J. Lindsay, P. Chung, J. Lawrence, D. McGlashan.
A field study was conducted in Jamaica to address the pest and disease problems associated with the production of Scotch Bonnet pepper and callaloo (Amaranthus sp.) in the Bushy Park area. Our study was designed to assess the inter-relationships between nutritional effects and pest and disease incidence. It was demonstrated that application of phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers as "slurry" method resulted in better growth and more fresh weight yield for both Scotch Bonnet pepper and callaloo. There was significant reduction in pest and disease incidence due to fertilizer application compared to control which did not receive any fertilizer. The reduction in pest and disease incidence is attributed to vigor and health of the plants with balanced nutrition.
Sociological Investigation of Factors Related to the Production of Export Crops and IPM in Jamaica. Jeffrey Himes, C. A. Pitts, Janice Reid, Janet Lawrence, Althea Perkins.
Jamaica is an island known for its warm climate and breathtaking scenery, but it is also an important producer of many agricultural products. Twenty-seven percent of Jamaica's population is involved in farming. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a tool which combines biological, cultural, and chemical control methods to maximize farm profit while protecting the environment. The IPM Collaborative Research Support Program was begun by USAID to extend technical assistance to Jamaican farming communities. Adoption of these IPM techniques can be hindered by many factors. This paper describes an exploratory research study done in the St. Mary's Parish in an attempt to identify cultural and socioeconomic barriers to IPM implementation by Jamaican farmers.
Enterprise Budget Analysis for Callaloo (Amaranthus Sp.). George L. Greaser, Jayson K. Harper, Robert Reid .
An enterprise budget was prepared for callaloo grown in the IPM CRSP, Jamaica site. Enterprise budgets represent estimates of receipts (income), costs, and profitability associated with the production of agricultural products. The information contained in the enterprise budgets can be used by agricultural producers, extension specialists, financial institutions, governmental agencies, and other advisers making decisions in the food and fiber industry. Budgets are used to:
Information Systems for Participatory IPM Research and Scientist/Extension Specialist Interactions. F. William Ravlin, Janice C. Reid, E. A. Roberts, Sharon McDonald, Janet Lawrence, Marlene Pareira.
Communication among scientists and access to information are essential to successfully implement international IPM research activities. Host country and U.S. scientists must be able to freely, regularly, and spontaneouly share ideas, documents, and data from anywhere in the world. The Information Systems (IS) project provides the IPM CRSP with a mechanism to rapidly and freely share information. This project established a program-wide World Wide Web (WWW) server and developed and presented an IS workshop to enhance IPM CRSP scientist research capabilities in the Caribbean.
Mali Site Assessment Activities . Mark Erbaugh, John Caldwell, and Makan Fofana.
Drs. Erbaugh and Caldwell collaborated with IPM CRSP Mali site researchers and field agents, extension agents from the Protection de Végétaux (PV) and the Opération Haute Vallée du Niger (OHVN) in the conduct of a farmer evaluation of Year II Field Trials at research sites in Mourdiah and Sirakorola, March 4-16, 1996. During this same period, Drs. Erbaugh and Caldwell and collaborating research scientists from IER held an evaluation meeting at the Sotuba Regional Research Center to discuss research progress and suggestions for improving site performance.
Formulation and Storage of Local Neem Extract and Development of Integrated Pest Management System for Stored Millet, Sorghum, and Cowpeas. Florence V. Dunkel.
In year 3 of the project, neem kernels produced in the villages of Koira and Douagabougou (Arrondissment Mourdiah) and the villages of Koroma and Dontiéribougou (Arrondissment Sirakorola) were used to prepare neem kernel extract (NKE) using a manual press. In the laboratories at Montana State University (MSU), we simulated the environment for longterm storage of the neem kernel extract in these Malian villages. We developed a chemical analysis procedure, using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), to follow the components of the extract as they degraded during storage of the extract. To follow the main active compound, azadirachtin, we used a standard azadirachtin (>90% pure) obtained for the project from Dr. W. Kraus, University of Stuttgart-Hohenheim. We developed a bioassay procedure, using cowpeas, bruchid beetles, and aqueous dilutions of NKE, to follow the biological activity of Malian NKE during the degradation process. Although it is well-known that the active compounds in NKE degrade rapidly in light, NKE's stability under high temperatures and no light has not been conclusively investigated. Temperature degradation of neem is an important question to Malian (and West African) farmers who wish to make an extract at a convenient time in the farming calendar and need to have the extract ready to use when pest monitoring systems indicate urgent action is needed. In the villages, it is not difficult to store NKE in a light-proof, sealed container. It is, however, nearly impossible to protect NKE from often prolonged high temperatures. Our results this year indicate that Malian NKE maintains its effectiveness shown in bioassays at high temperatures, including 2 weeks at 50oC followed by up to 2.5 months storage at 28oC. The effectiveness of the stored NKE may be due partially or even entirely to the action of the oil, rather than azadirachtin, and other terpenoids in the extract. From this research, we concluded that NKE produced in Malian villages of the Mourdiah and Sirakorola areas can be stored at the high temperatures routinely encountered in these villages. This year we have targeted cowpeas in our postharvest quality because cowpeas are a cash crop for women farmers, cowpeas suffer the greatest loss during storage (in comparison to millet and sorghum) in our collaborating villages, and cowpeas can serve as an important protein source in the local diet.
Integrated Management Strategies for Striga spp. and Other Weeds. Bouréma Dembélé, and John S. Caldwell, Virginia Tech
Two trials were conducted: an integrated Striga management trial and a trial of four sorghum varieties resistant to Striga. The integrated Striga management trial was carried out on 15 farms in Dontiéribougou in the Sirakorola zone and Douabougou and Koïra in the Mourdiah zone, while the sorghum variety trial was carried out on five farms in Koroma in the Sirakorola zone. In the first trial, four Striga management factors were assessed: cowpea variety, millet/cowpea association method, fertilization, and supplementary late weeding. The Striga-resistant cowpea variety in an alternate row association with the farmer's millet variety increased millet yield 23% over the farmer practice. Fertilization resulted in an additional 39% yield increase, but supplemental late weeding did not further increase yield. Striga counts were reduced in two of the three villages with use of these Striga management practices.
Assessment of Introduced and Village-Based Measures for Management of Millet and Sorghum Insect Pests. C. Richard Edwards , Mme. Kadiatou Gamby Touré, John S. Caldwell.
Neem oil extract from seed was prepared using a press obtained from the Malian non-governmental organization (NGO) Groupe de Recherche et d'Application Technique (GRAT) and compared with a petroleum-based formulation of azadirachtin (Azatin), removal of basal leaves that serve as a refuge for blister beetles (Psyalydolytta spp. and Melabris spp.), and the farmer's practice of no blister beetle control measures in four villages in the Mourdiah and Sirakorola zones of central Mali. Twenty-four hours prior to neem application, there were no significant differences in numbers of blister beetles per millet head among treatments or villages. Twenty-four and forty-eight hours after neem application, blister beetle counts were higher in the farmer practice (1.1 and 0.9 insects.head-1) and leaf removal treatments (1.6 and 1.5 insects.head-1) than in the treatments with neem application (0.5 and 0.7 insects.head-1), with differences between neem and leaf removal significant (P<0.05). Counts were not significantly different between the two types of neem. A 14% increase in millet yield in the treatments with neem and leaf removal (803 kg ha-1) over the farmer practice (706 kg ha-1) was non-significant. However, millet yields had significant negative correlations with counts of other blister beetle species at all dates (P<0.001, 0.003, 0.028, and 0.036, at 24 h before and 24 h, 48 h, and 7 d after application/removal). The lack of a significant yield increase in 1995 contrasts with a 53% significant yield increase with azatin application obtained in 1994. The lack of yield response in 1995 may have been due to lower overall blister beetle pressure in 1995 (3.4 insects.head-1 before treatment) compared to 1994 (7.7 insects.head-1 before treatment).
Farmer Evaluation of IPM Research. J. Mark Erbaugh, John S. Caldwell, Makan Fofana, Bouréma Dembélé, Oumar Camara, Mme. Sissoko Haoua Traoré.
IPM CRSP Mali site researchers, in conjunction with extension agents from the Protection de Végétaux (PV) and the Opération Haute Vallée du Niger (OHVN), conducted a participatory appraisal of 1995 on-farm integrated pest management (IPM) research. The evaluation was carried out March 4-16, 1996, with 36 farmers at research sites in 4 villages in the Mourdiah and Sirakorola zones. Results confirmed the pertinence of the selection of priority pests made in the 1994 PA, blister beetles and Striga, but indicated that the relative ranking of these pests and their relative importance on the two main cereal crops were perceived differently in 1995. There was an important difference in farmer evaluation of technology compatibility between the neem and Striga management trials. Farmers did not cite labor problems associated with neem application, but compatibility was an issue with the increased labor associated with late weeding and organic matter application in the Striga management trial. Late weeding was both the most problematic and the least effective of the practices in the combination. Farmer propensity for adoption paralleled the results for compatibility, with a higher propensity to adopt the neem technology. Only half of the farmer-collaborators were aware of the nature of the other on-going trials in their villages.
Ethnic and Gender Differentiated Intra-Household Resource Dynamics with Implications for IPM Interventions. Revathi Balakrishnan, Mark Erbaugh, Makan Fofana, Daniel B. Taylor, Mme. Sissoko Haoua Traoré
The preliminary analysis of the baseline survey has produced some interesting findings. Written IPM materials are not likely to be an effective mechanism of information dissemination. In Mourdiah, no respondents reported having any education while in Sirakorola, the situation is slightly better. In both Mourdiah and Sirakorola, men have more access to resources for agricultural production than women do. Men have both larger and more fields allocated to them than women. Men also use more purchased inputs on their fields, such as pesticides, than women do. The result is that 50% of the time women reported yields on their fields that were substantially lower than those of men. It may be that IPM practices could have the most impact on women's fields due to their current resource limitations. On the other hand, men may be more able to adopt IPM practices, particularly if they involve rotational systems due to their larger land base and command of more resources. Pest damage is more severe in Mourdiah than in Sirakorola. Ninety-three percent of the respondents in Mourdiah said that pest damage adversely affects their food security, but only twenty-seven percent of the respondents in Sirakorola reported this to be the case. While over twenty percent of the respondents in Mourdiah reported a seventy-five percent or greater crop loss due to the primary pest constraint on sorghum and millet, less than five percent of the respondents in Sirakorola indicate such a high level of loss. Thus farmers in Mourdiah may be less willing than farmers in Sirakorola to adopt IPM or other technologies unless their effectiveness has been demonstrated beyond doubt.
An Economic Analysis of Integrated Pest Management in Mali. Mark Erbaugh, Makan Fofana, and Daniel B. Taylor.
Labor and capital are resources that are limiting agricultural production in both Mourdiah and Sirakorola. The labor shortage is most acute for weeding, with Striga being the most time consuming weed to control. If they could, farmers would like to spend more money to relieve their labor constraints either through hiring more labor or adopting labor reducing technologies. More readily available agricultural credit for sorghum and millet production could help to alleviate this labor shortage. The lack of credit and labor limitations make it unlikely that labor intensive IPM techniques would be well-received by the farmers.
Evaluation of Crop Pest Monitoring System and Implementation of Socioeconomic Baseline Survey. Mark Erbaugh, Harold Willson, and Samuel Kyamanywa.
Drs. Erbaugh and Kyamanywa conducted an evaluation of the farmer crop pests monitoring system. It was conducted to assess the program's relevancy to farmers and to the IPM CRSP research effort in Uganda, and to rectify problems in the system at an early stage if they existed. In general, farmers were enthusiastic about the monitoring system and wanted to continue with the program. Farmers, both male and female, felt that they had benefitted from the program, had added to their knowledge of crop pests, had learned the importance of scouting their fields, and were proud of being part of the research process.
Drs. Erbaugh and Kyamanywa implemented a socioeconomic baseline survey at research sites in Kumi and Iganga Districts from July 18 through August 3, 1996. The socioeconomic baseline study was originally planned to be implemented in March, 1996. However, this date conflicted with the Mali Site Farmer Evaluation activity and preparation of Annual Work Plan and, thus, was delayed until July. Data are in the process of being coded and analyzed. Women farmers completed 59 percent of the questionnaires. Initial analyses reveal that pesticide usage by farmers was more common than expected. Some pesticide usage was reported by 71 percent of the respondents. Insecticides were most commonly used on cowpea and groundnut.
Development of a Farmer Implemented Crop Pest Monitoring System in Uganda. Harold R. Willson.
Farmer implemented crop pest monitoring programs were initiated at the start of the first rain's growing season by four groups of farmers in the districts of Iganga and Kumi. In each group, five farmer cooperators, including a local IPM coordinator selected to coordinate data collection, agreed to sample a set of crop sites on a periodic basis to obtain local data on pest complexes impacting three crops. In Iganga district, the focus was on bean and maize planted as intercrops or separately plus groundnuts. In Kumi district, the focus was on groundnuts and sorghum and millet planted as intercrops or separately. In each district, one group of farmers was all women and the other predominantly men. Local supervision of farmer implemented field sampling and data recording was provided periodically by extension personnel under the direction of the district plant protection officer. In addition, pest management specialists from either Makerere University or NARO research stations were to provide technical assistance and training during occasional visits to the districts. At the conclusion of the first rainy season, biological data had been collected from 10 bean sites, 5 maize sites, 5 sorghum sites, 5 millet sites, and 11 groundnut sites. The initial monitoring of the farmers' fields documented the relative activity and impact of 4 to 5 pests and diseases per crop. Relevant agronomic data on the sites monitored were also collected to facilitate analysis of relationships between agronomic practices (tillage, planting dates, etc.) with pest and disease observations. Collection of crop stand counts enabled documentation of local planting practices and demonstrated the occurence of significant stand losses attributed to insect and disease problems that had not been fully recognized until implementation of the pest monitoring program. The most important result demonstrated to date from the program is that Ugandan farmers can implement effective pest scouting programs if periodic supervision is provided by extension personnel. In general, it has been assumed that data collection on crop development and pest activity requires employment of technicians or implementation by extension field personnel. However, based on the initial results generated from the program, it is evident that Ugandan farmer groups have a sufficient level of expertise within their associations to implement crop pest monitoring programs if sufficient supervison and instruction is provided.
Farmer Implemented Crop Pest Monitoring in Uganda. Samuel Kyamanywa, Mark Erbaugh, and Harold Willson.
A pest monitoring program was conducted during the first rains growing season of 1996 (March - July) in Iganga and Kumi districts. Two farmer's groups per district were selected. The monitoring program started by holding a one day meeting for each group, during which the various pest sampling methods, including record keeping, were demonstrated to the farmers and extension agents. The data were collected on a bi-weekly basis, with emphasis on the pest that had been identified during the participatory appraisal. The target crops were beans, groundnuts, and maize for Iganga, and maize, millet, cowpea, and groundnuts for Kumi.
Crop Monitoring and Field Surveillance of Arthropod Pests, Diseases, Weeds, and Natural Enemies in Rice-Vegetable Production Systems. V. P. Gapud
IPM activities within the Philippines focused on four program areas in the past year: (1) crop monitoring and experimental work, (2) screening, mass rearing, testing, and trap cropping, (3) socioeconomic analysis and policy dialogue. Monitoring work is now a smaller part of the research program than it was in earlier years as major pest problems have been identified. Experimental work has grown to include experiments on close to 30 farmer fields (including those planned for year 4) as well as field experiments at PhilRice, AVRDC, and pot and microplot experiments at UPLB/NCPC. Significant survey work took place in the socioeconomic area in year 3 as well, related to economic and gender issues.
Pests and natural enemies of onions, eggplant, string beans, and rice were monitored. Management practices of eleven onion farmer cooperators in San Jose were monitored for the period covering December 1995 - March 1996 in relation to their planting practices, fertilizer inputs, yields, and pesticide use.
The root-knot nematode, M. graminicola, was identified as a potentially serious problem during the surveillance activity in year two. The pathogen showed potential for massive devastation in onion fields and therefore to the livelihood of farmers in the region. This year's study was focused on the selection of potential crops that can be used in rotation with rice and a further update on the nematode's weed host species. Screening of potential rotation crops to control nematodes in the rice-vegetable cropping system showed that several crops can be planted after rice to reduce nematode level in the soil. The crops that were considered resistant were Zea mays (corn), Arachis hypogaea (peanut), Cucumis sativus (cucumber), Cucurbita moschata (squash), Lagenaria seceraria (bottle gourd cv 1042-1), Luffa cylindrica (sponge gourd), Momordica charantia (bitter gourd), Phaseolus lunatus (lima beans), P. sesquipedalis (dry beans, pole sitao), P. vulgaris (snap beans), Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), V. unguiculata ssp. unguiculata x V. unguiculata ssp. sesquipedalis (bush sitao), Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea), Capsicum frutescens (pepper), and Solanum melongena (eggplant).
Arthropod functional groups and important phytophages were collected from fields, bunds, and villages. The data showed that there are rich communities of natural enemies in fallow fields and on borders. These areas, in the presence of flowering weeds especially during fallow periods, serve as source of food for adult parasitoids and as refuge for predators of several insect pests of rice and vegetables.
Weed composition and species dominance in rice-vegetable systems was determined using the quadrat sampling method, Major weed problems have been identified in two barangays, and sampling is ongoing in the third. In rice, the dominant grasses are Echinochloa crusgalli, Ischaemum rugosum, and red rice, while the dominant broadleaf weeds are Ludwigia octovalvis, Sphenoclea zeylanica, and Monochoria vaginalis. In onion, the dominant grass weeds are Echinochloa colona, Eleusine indica, and Digitaria ciliaris, while the dominant broadleaf weeds are Cleome viscosa and Trianthema portulacastrum. In both rice and onion crops, the dominant sedge is Cyperus rotundus. Our results also indicate that the alternate wet-dry soil moisture conditions of the rice-vegetable rotation pattern in San Jose is apparently selecting for a lowland ecotype of Cyperus rotundus over time.
Studies conducted in two farmer-collaborator fields indicate the potential of mulching to reduce the frequency of herbicide application and handweeding operations. Mulching, when combined with one handweeding plus one herbicide application, controlled weeds just as effectively as the farmers' practice of two herbicide applications plus two handweedings.
Screening, Mass-Rearing, Testing, and Trap Cropping. V. P. Gapud
A large set of screening, mass-rearing, testing, and trap cropping activities were planned for (a) screening of commercial and local Bt isolates for Spodoptera litura on onions, (b) mass-producing Bt and NPV and applying them in the field, (c) trap cropping with Castor beans and rearing and releasing a pentatomid predator, Eocanthecona furcellata for Spodoptera litura, (d) developing artificial media for mass-rearing of Maruca pod borer and Leucinodes orbonalis, and (e) mass-rearing Maruca and Leucinodes for use in testing potential biological control agents.
After 7 days of treatment using mulberry leaves soaked in Bt suspension and air dried for 3 minutes, BACTROLEP with 2.5 and 5.0 gm/li gave 80% mortality with 2% dead in the control. Preliminary tests were conducted combining Bt and NPV. In the NPV suspension with 1.6 x 106, 2.3 x 106 and 4.8 x 107 PIB's/50 ml with 2.5 gm/li each of BACTROLEP, the highest mortality was 53% in 4.8 x 107 PIB's/50 ml. Initially, the impression is that castor plants do not seem to attract Spodoptera effectively.
Socio-economic analysis and policy dialogue. V. P. Gapud.
A survey form was developed and pre-tested that will address gender roles and intra-household decision making in the rice-onion pest management system. Efforts are ongoing to evaluate and project impacts of IPM practices on household income and society as a whole, and to assess (a) effects of pesticide regulations on farm productivity, (b) changes in marginal productivity of pesticides, and (c) the effects of borrowing and land tenure status on pesticide use.
Characterization of some Philippine and U.S. Rhizoctonia isolates. and Biological control of Sclerotium rolfsii in a compost-amended container medium. Sally A. Miller and Leandro M. Sanchez.
After surveying seedbeds in November and visiting with growers and scientists, it became clear that the most economically important diseases in the Nueva Ecija region, in addition to root-knot nematode, were pink root and fusarium bulb rot of onion. Damping-off was a significant problem in seedbeds, and isolations indicated Rhizoctonia spp. were a significant factor. Experiments were planned for the greenhouse and field to investigate means of managing these diseases in keeping with IPM principles. Several methods of identifying and characterizing field isolates of Rhizoctonia spp. from rice, vegetables, and other crops were studied. Philippine rice isolates proved to be Rhizoctonia solani, although the anastomosis group was not the expected AG-1. Preliminary results indicated that fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis will be useful in characterizing these isolates. Initial attempts to characterize the isolates serologically were not successful. A radish bioassay was developed to determine the effects of compost containing biological control agents on disease caused by Sclerotium rolfsii, an important pathogen in the Philippines. Compost alone was not suppressive of disease development; however, the addition of the biological control agents Trichoderma hamatum 382 and Flavobacterium balustinum 299 caused a reduction in disease in this system.
IPM Field Experiments in the Philippines, Nematological Research, and Literature Searching Service. Ed Rajotte.
Linkages have been established with onion growers from the Bongabon area in the Philippines to strengthen communications between farmers of different regions and identify new sites for field research. Nematode research capabilities have been developed at PhilRice through modifications of the physical facilities and training of the support staff. Experimental nematode control practices focused on preplant soil preparation techniques including rice hull burning and the addition of organic soil amendments such as chicken manure. During the year, we have also been involved in developing a database service. The goal of the database service is to obtain citations and, when appropriate, journal articles for colleagues in the IPM CRSP who have limited access to databases and literature. For the sites in Jamaica and the Philippines, we have compiled over 1,400 journal articles and other pieces of scientific literature. We maintain a record of the citations using the bibliographic software Endnote 2.0 Plus.
Economic Impacts of IPM Practices in the Rice-Vegetable System. George Norton.
Graduate research assistant, Leah Cuyno, reviewed the information on methods for assessing economic impacts of IPM as a first step in her dissertation research, with an emphasis on methods for evaluating environmental impacts not priced in the marketplace. Under the leadership of Sergio Francisco, cost of production data were collected for some of the crops and IPM practices being researched on the CRSP.
Effects of Pesticide Regulations, Credit, and Land Tenure on Farm Productivity and Pesticide Use. George Norton.
Working with, but under the leadership of Prabhu Pingali and David Widowski (Rockefeller Social Science Research fellow at IRRI), another season's data on vegetable inputs and outputs were collected in San Jose from 75 farmers. Data collection is now complete so that the analysis of effects of land tenure, pesticide regulations, and other institutional factors on farm productivity, the demand for pesticides, and IPM can be completed during Year 4.
Social and Gender Analysis of Factors Affecting Pest Management. George Norton.
Under the leadership of Revathi Balakrishan, Irene Tanzo, and Thelma Paris, farm-households were surveyed in three villages in San Jose to provide data for analyzing effects of age and gender on pest management decision making.
Pesticide Policy Dialogue. George Norton
A working paper was prepared that summarizes the results of the analysis of the impacts of price and exchange rate policies on pesticide use in the Philippines. Current tax and exchange rate policies, in net, neither deter nor significantly encourage pesticide imports and usage in the Philippines, implying that IPM alternatives developed on the CRSP, if profitable, will not have to compete against heavily subsidized pesticides.
Develop Linkages to Other Institutions, Networks, and CRSP's. George Norton
With S.K. DeDatta, presentations were made and a workshop conducted with scientists at the National Agricultural Research Council (NARC) in Nepal to explore their interest in collaborating with the IPM CRSP. Although substantial interest was expressed on the part of both scientists and USAID/Nepal, budget constraints in the USAID/Nepal mission precluded the development of Nepal as a site for IPM CRSP activities. Contact was made with Merle Shepard, entomologist on a separate USAID-Supported IPM project in Indonesia. He attended a workshop sponsored by the IPM CRSP in the Philippines, and we will continue to collaborate on onion IPM.
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